Unravelling Stargardt disease (STGD1) : modelling genotype-phenotype correlations and unresolved genetic variants in iPSC-derived retinal organoids

Abstract

Stargardt disease (STGD1) is an inherited retinopathy affecting approximately 1:8000 individuals. It is characterised by biallelic mutations in ABCA4 and encodes a vital protein for the recycling of retinaldehyde in the retina. Despite its prevalence and impact, there are currently no treatments available for this condition. Furthermore, 35% of STGD1 cases remain genetically unsolved. Efforts have been directed towards comprehending the fundamental disease mechanisms and identifying all disease-causing variants in the extensive 128kb gene, to better aid with the development of effective therapeutic strategies. In this study, we generated iPSC lines from two monoallelic (PT1 & PT2), late-onset STGD1 cases with the heterozygous complex allele - c.[5461-10T>C;5603A>T]. We differentiated these cells alongside a biallelic affected control (AC) - c.4892T>C, and c.4539+2001G>A, to retinal organoids (ROs) allowing us to investigate cellular and molecular characteristics associated with STGD1. We hypothesised that the missing inheritance in our monoallelic cases is due to an RNA defect. Consequently, we utilised a myriad of sequencing strategies including WGS, single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNAseq) and long-read RNA sequencing (LRS) to address this. ROs were grown for 230 days and developed all key retinal neurons with photoreceptor outer segments capable of ABCA4 expression. We observed patient-specific disruption to lamination with OPN1MW/LW+ cone photoreceptor retention in the RO centre during differentiation. Retention was more severe in the AC case affecting both cones and rods, suggesting a genotype/phenotype correlation. scRNAseq suggests retention may be due to the induction of apoptosis in photoreceptors. WGS successfully identified the missing alleles in both cases; PT1 reported c. 5603A>T in homozygous state and PT2 uncovered a rare hypomorph - c.4685T>C. Furthermore, ROs were able to recapitulate the retina-specific splicing defect in PT1 as shown by LRS data. Collectively, these results highlight the suitability of ROs in STGD1 modelling. Their ability to display genotype-phenotype correlations enhances their utility as a platform for therapeutic development. Importantly, both PT1 and PT2 cases were genetically resolved in this study, providing two more individuals with their confirmed genetic diagnosis.